Landlocked state of the Balkan Peninsula, the Republic of Bosnia-Herzégovine (51 ' 130 km2) is limited to north and the west by Croatia, the south and the east by Serbia and Montenegro (Federal republic of Yugoslavia).
Antiquity at the time modern Populated at the origin of Thraces, then of Illyriens, the country, attached to Rome within the framework of the province of Illyricum, if was romanisé that it gave rise to a series of emperors who were energetic defenders of the Empire, and of which most famous was Dioclétien. After the passage of the Visigoths, old Illyricum was integrated into the Ostrogothic kingdom of Théodoric and, after the collapse of this one, was penetrated successively to the VI E and VII E centuries by tribes the Slavic ones, mainly of the Croats come from north.
Christianized from 900, these Slavic Bosnians, under the authority of their banns, opposed the Byzantine expansion and, against the orthodoxy of Constantinople, adhered largely of the XII E to the XIV E century to a movement heretic Manichean whose followers were often compared to Bogomiles of Bulgaria.
Independent monarchy to the XIV E century, Bosnia made certain great strides under the reign of Tvrtko Ier (1353-1391), before falling under the yoke from the Turks (1463). Herzégovine, which had been made up in autonomous duchy (1435), was conquered in its turn in 1482. The Othoman occupation involved the conversion of many Slavic with Islam, because of the advantages which was associated there (obtaining important stations in the Othoman administration, tax reductions). Conversion was not forced but voluntary. The Turks thus managed to control an area very far away from the center of the Empire, without having to send colonists to it. To the XVI E century, an important Jewish community of Spain was established in Bosnia. It was destroyed by Oustachis and the Nazis during the Second world war.
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A European destiny
To the XIX E century, in Bosnia a strong protest movement against the Ottoman Empire developed. Revolts burst. In 1875, most important among them, that of the Serb peasants of Herzégovine was propagated in the Bulgarian areas, causing the entry in war of Serbia and Montenegro (1876). The combat, unequal, ends in the defeat of the Slavic ones. Russia intervened in its turn after having signed with Austria a pact (January 1877) guaranteeing neutrality habsbourgeoise in return for Bosnia-Herzégovine. In a few months, the Russian troops came to end from Othoman resistance and, with the congress of Berlin (1878), it was decided, in accordance with convention austro-Russian, to grant to Austria-Hungary the right to manage Bosnia-Herzégovine on a purely provisional basis.
In 1908, the Austrian chancellor Aerenthal, in agreement with the chief of general staff, decided the pure and simple annexation of Bosnia-Herzégovine, thus causing a European diplomatic crisis, and opposing the projects of Russian Pan-Slavism. If Russia did not declare the war, it is because it was badly given of its defeat of 1905 vis-a-vis Japan and that its French ally refused to follow it. This domination was badly accepted by the Bosnians as well Serb as Croatian or Moslem, and the country became an hotbed of tension acute: in 1914, the assassination in Sarajevo of the Austrian crown prince François-Ferdinand constituted the spark which started the First World War.
At the end of the world war, the populations of the two provinces (Bosnia and Herzégovine) adopted the Yugoslav idea and accepted their incorporation in the kingdom of Serb, the Croats and the Sloveniens.
After the collapse of Serb monarchy and the occupation of the country by the Germans (1941), the State independent of Croatia combined to the powers of the Axis and directed by ultranationalist chief of Oustachis, Ante Pavelic, annexed Bosnia-Herzégovine where it followed a policy of extermination of the populations Serb, gypsies and Jewish. Resistance was made up of two movements: that of the tchetniks (Serb), carried out by Draza Mihailovic and of royalist tendency, that of the Partisans of Tito, Communist.
Initially linked, the two movements diverged very quickly. Bosnia-Herzégovine, especially Herzégovine in the south, became with Montenegro one of the principal mountainous bastions of the partisans of Tito, who delivered to it on the edges of Neretva one of their harder battles against the Nazis, the oustachis Croatian and the united Serb tchetniks. It is in this area that was held, in clandestinity, the second congress of the partisans (Jajce, November 1943) announcing the birth of the future Yugoslav Federation.
Socialist Bosnia-Herzégovine (1945-1992)
From 1945 to 1991, Bosnia-Herzégovine was one of the six federate republics of Yugoslavia. It was characterized by the fact that none nationalities represented was majority there. The census of 1948 counted 44.3 % the Serb ones, 24 % of Croats and 30.7 % of Moslems. Bosnia-Herzégovine thus constituted a kind of miniature Yugoslavia within the Federation. But only the Serb ones and the Croats had the statute of “nationalities”; to designate the Moslems, the censuses used other formulas: “Croatian or Serb of Islamic religion” or “Moslems without membership declared” in 1948, “unspecified Yugoslavians” in 1953. The leaders of Belgrade hoped thus that in the course of time, the Moslems would end up being assimilated either to Serb or to the Croats; vain aspiration since on their side, the Moslems made recognition of their specific nationality their principal demand.
But, more than on the religious component of their identity, the Moslem persons in charge, who counted the many laic ones, insisted on his cultural and political aspect. It is not that in 1968 qu ' they obtained satisfaction. The census of 1971 offered the possibility of being defined as “Moslem”, the “M to them” capital letter indicating a nationality and not a religious practice (in this case, one wrote “Moslem” with a “m” lower-case). The term was criticized, and gradually abandoned with the profit of “Bosnian” (officialized in the constitution of the Republic in 1994). However, a confusion remained between denominational or cultural dimension and the national membership.
From the years 1960, Bosnia which was, at the origin, one of the least developed Republics Federation, knew a certain economic advancement. It urbanized and was equipped with industries door (chemistry, electrical engineering) and with armament, as well as new infrastructures. The organization of the Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, in 1984, was symbolic system of this “success” economic Bosnian. But during the years 1980, the general state of the economy was degraded (politico-financial populism, corruption, scandals, inflation).
The nationalist revival
Years 1980 were also remembered by the rise of nationalisms. But, contrary to Croatia or of Slovenia, Bosnia, expressed only tardily its inclinations of independence. The change occurred in 1990 with the degradation of the situation as Slovenia and Croatia and the formation, after the legalization of the multi-party system, of “national” parties, representing each community. The SDA (Left the democratic action) of the Moslem Alija Izetbegovi0, the HDZ (the Croatian democratic Community) of the Croat Stjepan Kljuic and the SDS (Serb democratic party) of Serb Radovan Karadui0, obtained 84 % of the seats at the Parliament, won over until there to the Communists, and formed a coalition government.
After the secessions of Slovenia and Croatia (June 1991), arose the question of the fate of the Republic of Bosnia in a Yugoslav federation from now on entirely dominated by the Serb ones. The question was all the more difficult to solve that all the tendencies were represented within the Bosnian government. The Moslems were favorable to the formation of a Bosnian State multicultural and independent, the Serb ones leant for the dislocation of Bosnia and the fastening of the Serb areas in Serbia. As for the Croats, they were divided. Some wished independence, others the meeting in Croatia.
Independence
From September 1991, the Serb ones of Bosnia, like their similar of Krajina (Croatia), proclaimed six autonomous regions, and called upon the federal army which was spread in the area and was used itself about it as a basis for its military operations in Croatia. On October 15th, the Bosnian Parliament retorted by taking two resolutions, one announcing the sovereignty of Bosnia-Herzégovine, the other its dissociation of with the Yugoslav federation. The Serb deputies boycotted this vote and formed, on their side, a Parliament independent of the Serb nation. The rupture between Serb and Croato-Moslems were officially consumed.
Remained the question of the international recognition of the new State. A referendum on independence, organized at the request of the European Community, took place the February 22nd and March 1st, 1992. The Serb ones having boycotted the vote, “yes” obtained 99 % of the votes and, on on April 6th, the new State was recognized by the European Community. The following day, the Parliament of the Serb people proclaimed the independence of the “Serb Republic of Bosnia-Herzégovine” with for provisional capital Pale, suburbs close to Sarajevo. At once, the first armed incidents opponent Serb forces and croato-Moslem women burst in Sarajevo. Thus a civil war began which was going to devastate the area during more than three years.
The war (1992-1995)
At the beginning of the hostilities, the bosno-Serb militia, supported by the Yugoslav federal army and the paramilitary organizations of Serbia (white Eagles of Vojislav Seselj and Tigers of Arkan), and well better equipped than the forces croato-Moslem women, penalized by the embargo on the weapons issued in September 1991 by the Safety advice of UNO, gained significant successes. In May, the Serb ones had seized the towns of Western Bosnia (Bijeljina, Modrica, Banja Luka, Gradiska) mainly Moslem, and occupied 60 % of the Bosnian territory where they were delivered at worst the exactions: summary executions, collective massacres, plunderings, rapes and expulsion of all theSerb ones in order to constitute areas “ethniquement pure”.
These atrocities caused the indignation of the international community, without to cause a direct intervention of this one in the conflict. The Safety advice of UNO was satisfied to take sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro (May 30th, 1992), and to vote in June the sending of blue helmets in Sarajevo (FORPRONU), intended for the strict maintenance of peace.
Vis-a-vis Serb successes, the camp croato-Moslem started to fissure. As of November 1991, the Croats, following the example of the Serb ones, had formed of the autonomous regions; in July 1992, they proclaimed the “Croatian Community of Herceg Bosna” which became in August the “Republic Croatian of Herceg Bosna”. The rupture between the two parts intervened at the winter 1992-1993, and the war set ablaze central Bosnia around Vitez, Mostar and Travnik. In spring 1993, the Moslems, victims of new Serb offensives in Eastern Bosnia on the one hand (Srebrenica, Gorazde, Foca and Visegrad), and Croatian attacks in Herzégovine Western and on part of central Bosnia on the other hand, were in a so critical situation that it led UNO to institute in May six “security zones” (Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zepa, Gorazde, Srebrenica, Bihac) where the blue helmets were in charge of their protection.
During nearly one year, nevertheless, May 1993 to February 1994, the engagements redoubled intensity, in particular in the Moslem secessionist of Bihac, proclaimed autonomous province at the end of 1993 by Fikret Abdic, and taken enclave by storm by the Bosnian army of Sarajevo, between Vitez and Mostar (combat croato-Moslems), in Eastern Bosnia in the Moslem enclaves of Srebrenica, Zepa and Gorazde (Serb attacks) and north of central Bosnia, in Sarajevo, Tuzla and Travnik.
At the beginning of 1994, the situation evolved in favor of the Moslems. Following a particularly fatal bombardment from a market in Sarajevo in February, UNO launched an ultimatum and obtained theSerb ones that they move back their heavy weapons to 20 km of Sarajevo. The next month, the former enemies, Croats and Moslems, joined again their alliance, and signed, under the American pressure, an agreement instituting a croato-Moslem woman Federation of Bosnia-Herzégovine and a confederation of this one with Croatia. The insulation of Serb of Bosnia increased when they refused the peace plan proposed by the group of contact envisaging the division of Bosnia in two autonomous entities, 49 % of the territory returning to Serb, 51 % with the croato-Moslem woman Federation. This proposal had been accepted by the Croats, the Moslems and even by Belgrade, anxious to make put an end to the economic sanctions of which it was the object since the beginning it conflict and to appear under a better day on the international scene. This reversal of the Yugoslav capital caused the rupture of the relations of the Republic of Serbia with the Serb ones of Bosnia (proclamation in July of an embargo of Belgrade on the Serb ones of Bosnia).
On the military level also, theSerb ones lost ground. After some first the success partial, in particular recovery between August and October 1994 of north of area of Bihac (area which fell however again under the blows from Serb from Blade and Krajina in November - December 1994), the Croats launched du1er on May 3rd, 1995 an offensive flash on the Western Slavonia, of which it expelled all the Serb inhabitants. The bosno-Serb forces retorted by the resumption of their bombardments on the “security zones”, Sarajevo, Bihac, Tuzla, Srebrenica, Gorazde and Zepa, causing, in return, ramming by the FORPRONU of a deposit of armament with Pale (May 25th and 26th). To protect their strategic sites, theSerb ones took 400 blue helmets as an hostage then and made use of it like human shields. After their release, the Safety advice created at the beginning of June a fast Multinational force of reaction (FRR), intended to support the FORPRONU.
In July, theSerb ones seized the “security zones” of Srebrenica and Zepa, where they were devoted to atrocities. But they were their last victorious offensive. After the opening-up of Bihac, the Croats seized Krajina (4 August 8th, 1995), where they were devoted to their turn with a “ethnic cleansing”, exactly as they had done in Slavonia in May; 200 ' 000 Serb was driven out of an area where they were established since the Middle Ages. Strike Western the bosno-Serb military infrastructures following the fatal bombardment of a market of Sarajevo (August 28th, 1995) and the reconquest by the Croato-Moslems of Western and central Bosnia came thus to end from Serb resistance. Thus was completed, with the autumn 1995, this long and bloody conflict which had made more than 280 ' 000 deaths and had caused the exodus of more than 2.6 million people.
A difficult rebuilding (1995-2000)
Defeated, the Serb ones of Bosnia elected Miloqevic, president of the Republic of Serbia (Yugoslavia), to negotiate on their behalf. In November, Miloqevic found Alija Izetbegovic and Franjo Tudjman, its counterparts Bosnian and Croatian, in Dayton, where was concludes “the global agreement from peace” envisaging the partition of Bosnia in two autonomous entities, the croato-Moslem woman Federation (51 % of the territory) and the Serb Republic of Bosnia (49 %), laying out each one of its constitution, its police force, its army, and the right to establish relations with the neighbors. The agreement of Dayton established also institutions common to both entities: a collegial presidency, a parliamentary assembly made up of two rooms, a constitutional court and a central bank, with limited competences. A new force, the IFOR (lmplementation Forces) charged to take care of the implementation of the agreement, was to succeed the FORPRONU. Its troops were deployed on the ground at the beginning of 1996.
If the placement of the military shutter of Dayton showed a success it peace seems from now on established in Bosnia-Herzégovine -, that of the civil shutter, however, proved to be difficult. The return of the victims of the ethnic “purifications” in the minority zones is limited (30 ' 000 returns only in 1999), the common institutions function badly, the process of rebuilding tramples, the economy stagnates in spite of the international assistance (4 billion euros of 1996 to 1999), and principal war criminals, like Serb Radovan Karadui0 or Madlie, though sought by the International penal court of $the Hague, were still not stopped.
The nationalist formations dominate the political scene of the two entities, in spite of the slow emergence of moderate forces supported by the international community. At the conclusion of the presidential ballot organized in 1996, the collegial presidency of Bosnia-Herzégovine was taken by Alija Izetbegovi0 (SPA, Musulman) then by Momcilo Krajisnik (SDS, Serbe) and Kresimir Zubak (HDZ, Croat). A timid reversal however was operated with the municipal elections 1997 with the loss by the SDS of Banja Luka, the most important urban area of the Serb Republic of Bosnia, with the profit of the candidates of Biljana Plavsic, president of the Republic Serb September 1996 and favorable to the implementation of the agreements of Dayton. The ultranationalists of Blade transfer their insulation to increase when in January 1998 the president of the Federal republic of Yugoslavia, S. Miloqevi0, which had supported them up to that point, had, because of the pressures of the international community, to officially recognize the legitimacy of the government of the partisans of Biljana Plavsic, directed by Milorad Dodik, this last having in addition obtained the transfer of its government of Blade to Banja Luka.
In September 1998, of new general elections organized in Bosnia also balanced themselves by a light retreat of the nationalist parties, with obtaining the collegial presidency by Serb Zivko Radisic (socialist moderate), Ante Jelavic (Croatian, HDZ) and Alija Izetbegovi0 (SDA, Musulman). At the Parliament, the nationalist coalition gathered around the SDA (Started from democratic action) of Alija Izetbegovic arrived at the head, but without having the absolute majority again. On the other hand, in Serb Republic, it is the ultranationalist Nikola Poplasen who was elected with the presidency, instead of moderate Biljana Plavsic. Poplasen was relieved in March 1999 by the civil high representative of UNO not to have taken back in its functions the First outgoing minister, Milorad Dodik, and to have refused to name in its place a man likely to gain the support of the Parliament.
In October 2000, calling upon health reasons, the representative Musulman Alija Izetbegovic left the tripartite presidency two years before the official end of his mandate, while the construction of multi-ethnic Bosnia became increasingly difficult after the victory of the nationalist parties to the general elections of November, in Serb Republic and in the croato-Moslem woman Federation